Guided imagery to improve functional outcomes post-anterior cruciate ligament repair: randomized-controlled pilot trial.

Imagery can improve functional outcomes post-anterior cruciate ligament repair (ACLR). Research is needed to investigate potential mechanisms for this effect. The aim of this study was to (a) evaluate the effectiveness of an imagery intervention to improve functional outcomes post-ACLR, and (b) explore potential mechanisms. A randomized-controlled pilot trial was conducted. Participants were randomized to guided imagery and standard rehabilitation or standard rehabilitation alone (control). The primary outcome was knee strength 6-month post-operatively. Secondary outcomes were knee laxity at 6-months, and change in psychological (self-efficacy) and neurohormonal (adrenaline, noradrenaline, dopamine) variables. Participants (n=21; 62% male) were 34.86 (SD 8.84) years. Following the intervention, no statistical differences between groups for knee strength extension at 180°/s (t=-0.43, P=0.67), or at 60°/s (t=-0.72, P=0.48) were found. A statistically significant effect was found for knee laxity, F=4.67, P<0.05, mean difference of -3.02 (95% CI -4.44 to -1.60), favoring the intervention. No differences were found for self-efficacy; however, an overall effect was found for noradrenaline, F(1, 19) 19.65, P<0.001, η(2) =0.52, and dopamine, F(1, 19) 6.23, P=0.02, η(2) =0.29, favoring the intervention. This imagery intervention improved knee laxity and healing-related neurobiological factors.

Self-efficacy, imagery use, and adherence during injury rehabilitation.

Previous observational studies examining imagery, self-efficacy, and adherence during injury rehabilitation have been cross-sectional and thus have not provided a clear representation of what occurs over the course of the rehabilitation period. The objectives of this research were (1) to examine the temporal patterns of imagery, self-efficacy, and rehabilitation adherence during an 8-week rehabilitation program and (2) to identify the time-order relationships between imagery, self-efficacy, and adherence. The design of the study was prospective and observational. 90 injured people (n=57 males; n=33 females) aged 18-78 years attending an injury rehabilitation clinic participated. The main outcome measures were imagery (cognitive, motivational, and healing), self-efficacy (task and coping), and rehabilitation adherence (duration, quality, and frequency). Results indicated that task efficacy, imagery use, and adherence levels remained stable, while coping efficacy declined over time. During the course of rehabilitation, moderate to strong reciprocal relationships existed between self-efficacy and adherence to rehabilitation. Weak to moderate relationships were found between imagery use and rehabilitation adherence. The results of this study can be used to inform the development of interventions steeped in self-efficacy and imagery aimed at improving rehabilitation adherence and treatment outcome.

Social physique anxiety and eating attitudes in female athletic and non-athletic groups.

One purpose of the present study was to compare Social Physique Anxiety (SPA) scores among four different female groups (physique-salient (PS) athletes-aerobics competitors and divers, n = 63; weight-restricted athletes-rowers, n = 60; non-physique-salient (NPS) athletes--soccer, n = 75; and non-athlete students, n = 53). A second purpose of the study was to examine relations between SPA and disturbed eating attitudes among these four groups. Participants completed the Social Physique Anxiety Scale (SPAS; Hart, Leary, & Rejeski, 1989) and the Eating Attitude Test (EAT; Garner & Garfinkel, 1979). With respect to purpose one, an analysis of variance (ANOVA) with SPA (i.e., 9-item single factor model of the SPAS) as the dependent measure, failed to reach significance (F (3,184) = 1.61, p> .05). With respect to purpose two, significant relations were found between SPA and EAT scores for all four groups. Inferential comparison of the bivariate correlations (Fisher's Z transformations), however, showed no significant differences between groups. In addition, a moderated regression analysis was computed using EAT scores as the dependent measure. The variables were entered in the following order: SPA, followed by dummy vectors for each sport-type category, and then the interaction term between SPA and the dummy vectors. Results showed that there was no significant interaction effect. Thus, these analyses, taken together. suggest that the type of sport activity does not serve to moderate relations between SPA and disordered eating. Implications of the findings are discussed.

Decreasing landing forces: effect of instruction.

OBJECTIVE: To examine the effects of instructions related to joint kinematics, auditory stimuli, and imagery on lowering the vertical ground reaction forces associated with landing from a jump. STUDY DESIGN: Randomised controlled trial. SETTING: A laboratory in an educational institution. SUBJECTS: Eighty asymptomatic subjects (27 men) with a mean age of 24 years. INTERVENTION: Subjects were randomly assigned to the following groups: (1) instruction (limb position instructions); (2) auditory cue (listen to impact sounds); (3) imagery (metaphorical); (4) control. Subjects were required to jump from a box 300 mm in height and land on a force plate. Measures of the ground reaction force were recorded before and after the intervention. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURE: The peak vertical ground reaction force recorded at footstrike. RESULTS: The peak vertical ground reaction forces in the technical instruction and auditory groups were significantly less than those of the control group. There was no significant difference between the auditory and technical instruction groups. There was no significant difference between the imagery and control groups. CONCLUSIONS: When an aim of a rehabilitation programme is to minimise forces on the lower limb during landing type activities, the findings support the use of instructions related to kinematics as well as instructions that draw the patient's attention to the sound at impact.

Effects of instruction in jumping technique and experience jumping on ground reaction forces.

STUDY DESIGN: Randomized, controlled trial. OBJECTIVE: To determine the roles that augmented feedback from instruction in jumping technique and sensory feedback from experience jumping play in assisting individuals to land softly from a jump. BACKGROUND: Jumping and landing activities play a major role in many sports and daily activities. Feedback may assist individuals in decreasing landing forces and thus reduce the chances of sustaining an injury. METHODS AND MEASURES: Nonimpaired subjects (n = 91) were randomly assigned to either an augmented or sensory feedback condition. All subjects were asked to jump from a box 300 mm in height and land as softly as possible on a force plate. Pre-intervention ground reaction forces (GRF) were recorded. Subjects in the augmented feedback condition were then given instructions to focus on hip and knee joint motion as well as a forefoot landing technique for their next jump. Subjects in the sensory feedback condition were asked to use the experience of their first jump to land softly for their next jump. Post-intervention GRFs were recorded and all GRFs were expressed as a multiple of body weight. RESULTS: Those in the augmented condition significantly reduced their GRF scores from pre-(mean = 4.53 +/- 1.51) to post-(mean = 3.57 +/- 1.10) jump, whereas those in the sensory condition did not (mean pre GRF = 4.51 +/- 1.77; mean post GRF = 4.33 +/- 1.54). CONCLUSIONS: High ground reaction forces may be a precipitating factor associated with an injury, where the site of tissue damage would benefit from decreased forces. These findings support the use of instructions related to joint motion to reduce landing forces.

Normative data of vertical ground reaction forces during landing from a jump.

This technical report provides normative data of vertical ground reaction forces (GRFs) associated with landing from a jump. Subjects were 234 adolescents (mean age: 16 years) who were categorised by gender, activity level and type of sport played. Subjects jumped from a box 0.3 metres high to land on a force plate. Results showed that there were no significant differences (p>0.05) across gender, activity levels, and type of sport played. Across all subjects, the mean peak vertical GRF was 4.5 bodyweights (SD: 1.7). In regard to gender, mean peak vertical GRFs were 4.6 (SD: 1.7) and 4.2 (SD: 1.4) for males and females respectively. The mean peak vertical GRF for subjects involved in recreational sport 1-3 times per week was 4.4 bodyweights (SD: 1.7), while the mean for those playing competitive sport 4-7 times per week was 4.5 bodyweights (SD: 1.7). The mean peak vertical GRF for subjects participating in sports involving jumping and landing activities was 4.6 bodyweights (SD: 1.8) as compared to 4.4 bodyweights (SD: 1.5) for subjects in sports that did not involve jumping activities.

Relationship of swimming distance, expectancy, and performance to mood states of competitive athletes.

This study focused on the relationship between normal and abbreviated training sessions for young competitive swimmers and acute changes in mood. Several potential moderators of the relationship between exercise and mood also were examined. 25 girls and 23 boys, swimmers between the ages of 12 and 25 years, completed a shortened version of the Profile of Mood States before and after normal-distance and taper practices. An hypothesized interaction between distance training and acute changes in scores on Total Mood Disturbances was significant. During normal-distance practices, scores on Mood Disturbance increased from pre- to postpractice. Analyses of the individual subscales indicated that swimmers" scores increased for Fatigue and decreased for Vigor. In abbreviated practice sessions, athlete's scores on Total mood Disturbance showed no change from pre- to postpractice. The specific subscales, however, showed positive changes for Depression, Confusion, and Tension. The mood changes related to practice distance were not influenced by the possible moderating factors of expectancy or performance times. Thus, even for highly trained competitive swimmers, exercising at or near maximal physical capability is associated with few positive changes in mood scores. Shorter-distance swims that do not tax endurance are preferable, if mood enhancement is a goal.

A test of Martens, Vealey and Burton's theory of competitive anxiety.

The purpose of this study was to test Martens, Vealey, and Burton's (1990) theoretical model of competitive anxiety. In order to assess the variables corresponding to the model, a sample of 199 (N = 126, male and N = 73, female) individual sport athletes completed the following inventories: the Sport Anxiety Scale (SAS; Smith, Smoll, & Schutz, 1990), items related to the uncertainty of outcome, items related to the importance of outcome, and the Competitive State Anxiety Inventory-2 (CSAI-2; Martens, Burton, Vealey, Bump, & Smith, 1990). In addition, the short-form of the Marlowe-Crowne Social Desirability Scale (M-C SDS; Reynolds, 1982) was completed by all subjects. The variables corresponding to the model underwent psychometric evaluation as well as a check for social desirability effects before they were used in a LISREL causal path model procedure. Results showed no concrete support for the basic propositions advanced through the model. Trait-anxiety did not significantly affect perception of threat and perception of threat had minimal effect on state-anxiety. Recommendations for future research are discussed.

Ending batting slumps in baseball: a qualitative investigation.

This study used a qualitative method of inquiry to examine how baseball players cope with batting slumps. Players from one national junior (n = 30) and several semi-professional teams (n = 35) made up the sample. Through the use of an open-ended question, each subject was asked to provide advice to players experiencing a batting slump. Inductive content analysis procedures were used to analyse the quotes from the open-ended question. Six major categories of coping strategies emerged from the data: focusing on the task, returning to basics, being actively positive, avoiding negativism, increasing effort, and seeking coaching. These findings contribute to the suggestion that baseball players use a variety of coping strategies to deal with batting slumps. Results also showed that national junior and semi-professional players differed on some of the coping strategies they considered to be most helpful. How this information can be used by coaches and sport psychologists is discussed.

Coach/player relationships in tennis.

The present study examined the variables that predict coach/athlete compatibility. Compatibility among a sample of 52 elite tennis coach/player dyads was assessed using a sport adapted version of Schutz's (1966) Fundamental Interpersonal Relations Orientation-Behaviour (FIRO-B), a sport adapted version of Fiedler's (1967) Least Preferred Co-worker scale (LPC), and Chelladurai and Saleh's (1980) Leadership Scale for Sport (LSS). Self-ratings of the quality of the interaction were obtained from both coach and athlete. Multiple-regression analyses using self-rating scores as the dependent measure were carried out to determine which variables best predicted the degree of compatibility. The sole inventory that significantly predicted compatibility was the LSS. More specifically, the discrepancy between the athlete's preferences and perceptions on the autocratic dimension was the best predictor. Implications for tennis coaches and recommendations for future research in this area are discussed.